SAMPLE TEACHER PROMPTS OF SLA

Sample Teacher Prompts for Each Stage of Second Language Acquisition

Stage	Characteristics	Approximate Time Frame	Teacher Prompts
Preproduction	The student Has minimal comprehension. Does not verbalize. Nods "Yes" and "No." Draws and points.	0–6 months	Show me … Circle the … Where is …? Who has …?
Early Production	The student Has limited comprehension Produces one- or two-word responses. Uses key words and familiar phrases. Uses present-tense verbs.	6 months–1 year	Yes/no questions Either/or questions Who …? What …? How many …?
Speech Emergence	The student Has good comprehension. Can produce simple sentences. Makes grammar and pronunciation errors. Frequently misunderstands jokes.	1–3 years	Why …? How …? Explain … Questions requiring phrase or short-sentence answers
Intermediate Fluency	The student Has excellent comprehension. Makes few grammatical errors.	3–5 years	What would happen if …? Why do you think …? Questions requiring more than a sentence response
Advanced Fluency	The student has a near-native level of speech.	5–7 years	Decide if … Retell …

For Early Production students, questions that require a one-word response, such as yes/no and either/or questions, are acceptable. You also want to begin asking students at this stage questions that require a phrase or short sentence.

Speech Emergence students should be asked to answer questions that require a short-sentence response. It is OK to sometimes ask these students questions requiring a multiple-sentence response, but it is not OK to ask them questions requiring a pointing or one-word response.

How about Intermediate and Advanced Fluency students? It is OK to ask them questions that require a lot of verbal output, but it is not OK to ask them questions requiring minimal verbal output.

You can use tiered questions to include all ELLs in whole-class activities or one on one to check comprehension or content learning. To accomplish this, you will need to know each student's stage of language acquisition.

Classroom Example

To improve her ability to ask tiered questions, a 1st grade teacher asks the school ESL teacher to demonstrate the strategy in her class during a discussion of The Three Little Pigs. For each stage of second language acquisition, the ESL teacher asks the following types of tiered questions:

• Preproduction: Ask questions that students can answer by pointing at pictures in the book ("Show me the wolf," "Where is the house?").
• Early Production: Ask questions that students can answer with one or two words ("Did the brick house fall down?" "Who blew down the straw house?").
• Speech Emergence: Ask "why" and "how" questions that students can answer with short sentences ("Explain why the third pig built his house out of bricks." "What does the wolf want?").
• Intermediate Fluency: Ask "What would happen if …" and "Why do you think …" questions ("What would happen if the pigs outsmarted the wolf?" "Why could the wolf blow down the house made of sticks, but not the house made of bricks?")
• Advanced Fluency: Ask students to retell the story, including main plot elements but leaving out unnecessary details.

STAGES OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Should L1 be used in ESL CLASS

Judicious use of L1 in Second language learning

Using L1 is not the problem. The problem is when and how to use it. Before answering this question, it should be born in mind that L1 use must be considered “as a means to an end”. The target language must be used where possible and L1 when necessary.  Here are some examples of appropriate use of L1 in ESL classes.

§  Beginners
The mother tongue can be probably more beneficial to beginners. As they progress in their learning the target language will take the lead.

§  L1 can be time-saving.
Instead of going through a long explanations in the target language, it is sometimes easier and more efficient to give a translation of a vocabulary item or an explanation of a grammar point. Imagine a teacher  who wants to teach the word “car” to Malayalam students and start by phrasing the explanation as follows “a car is a road vehicle with an engine, four wheels, and seats for a small number of people” while a simple translation of the word ( or perhaps the use of visual aids) would be enough.

§  Comparison
A comparison of English and the mother tongue can be a very enriching experience. In fact, discovering the similarities and differences of both languages can enhance the TL acquisition. This comparison can be done at different levels:

§  Vocabulary
– Exploring the nuances of vocabulary items in both languages
– Building bilingual (or even multilingual) semantic maps

§  Grammar
– A comparison between L1 grammar and TL grammar yields interesting results.
– This comparison will highlight the differences between the two languages. Teachers and learners may build on these differences to avoid negative transfer ( L1 transfer which may be a source of errors.)
– The comparison also shows the similarities which will undoubtedly boost the internalization of  the TL grammar.

§  Culture
Language is a vehicle for cultural aspects. If teachers ban the use of the mother tongue, this underlies an ideological conception of L1 culture as being inferior. Alternatively, cultural differences and similarities can be highlighted to help learners accept and tolerate differences while at the same time preserve their cultural uniqueness. This can be done through various activities where L1 plays an important role.

§  Proverbs
Students may be given a set of proverbs in the TL and be asked to find the corresponding ones in their mother tongue if they exist. If not they try to translate the proverbs into their language.

§  Idiomatic Expressions
Again, finding the corresponding idioms or a translation of TL idioms might be very helpful to detect cultural differences or similarities

§  Songs
Translation of lyrics

§  Jokes
Funny ESL activities can be built on jokes. Students may translate and tell or act TL jokes to create a free stress environment and spot TL cultural specificities.

§  Stress
Using L1 gives a sense of security and acknowledges the learners identity, allowing them to minimize the stress they may feel in ESL classrooms. With careful use of L1 learners may become willing to experiment and take risks with English.

§  Needs
Learners needs must be expressed in L1 since the TL is not yet mastered . Learners will never be able to express and communicate their needs with a language they speak poorly.

§  Classroom management
Management of conduct and discipline is sometimes hard to be done in the target language. For instance, if a serious problem emerges in the classroom, will the teacher really insist on an English-only policy when coping with it?

§  Grammar
L1 can be of great help when teaching grammar. Translation exercises for example may be the perfect practice when there is a grammar point that is causing trouble to students.

§  Instructions
According to my experience with ESL classes, I can dare say that so many failures in tests were due to learners lack of understanding of instructions. L1 can be used to redress this issue, helping students to understand what is exactly asked from them.

§  Rationale
Students need to understand the rationale behind activities or methods. It is important that they know where they start and what they will able to do. They should understand what lies behind the methods the teacher is using. This can only be done at this level through the students native language.

§  Errors
Discussion of some recurring errors. It is true that a lot of errors are caused by L1 transfer. Malayalam students, for example, say “I’m agree” instead of  “I agree” which is an error due to L1 transfer. A discussion in L1 of such errors will help students overcome these problems.

Of course, the list may be extended to other areas of second language teaching.

Conclusion

The debate over the use of L1 in second language teaching hasn’t been settled yet. On the one hand there are those teachers who reject the use of L1 altogether or fail to recognize any significant potential in it. On the other hand, there are those who either massively overuse it. Both are abusing a resource of great importance and delicacy each in his own way. My view consists of using the target language as the medium of instruction when possible and switching to the mother tongue when it is really necessary. A rational and judicious use of L1 in ESL classes can only be advantageous. L1 use must be tuned up with effective target language teaching, taking into consideration learners mother tongue and cultural background and using them to the best of their interest.

Making a presentation

Many students find giving a presentation stressful. But good preparation is half the battle and takes away a lot of the stress!

Action Plan for making a presentation

1. Choose an interesting topic. You might have a choice of several topics provided by your lecturer, or you may be free to choose for yourself. An interesting topic will make it easier to be enthusiastic about your presentation!
2. Define you topic, be specific and to the point, or you’ll lose your audience’s attention.
3. Collect information on the topic.
4. Make an outline of your presentation. A mind-map could help with this. 
5. If your prefer, write the text out in full. A presentation consists of an introduction, a main section (the actual information) and an ending. Separate the main topics from the minor points, to make it easier for the audience to follow you. Repeat the most important information several times in different words, and give examples. This will clarify your message and make it easier for listeners to remember the main points. You can also use visual images to support your presentation. At the end of your presentation, summarize your message briefly and clearly.
6. Choose your tools; use PowerPoint or a similar program.
7. Practice! Your posture and body language determine a large part of the effect of your presentation on the audience. Practise your presentation at home, in front of a mirror. Pay attention to your facial expression and to your hands, for example.
8. Check your material: be at the location in good time and make sure that your PowerPoint works, whether the beamer works, where the flip-over is. Technical problems will disrupt your presentation and make you unnecessarily stressed.

Ten tips for presentations

Do	Don’t
1. Start preparing your presentation in good time.	1. Put off preparing until the last minute.
2. Write down the main points of the presentation.	2. Come up with a story without a clear structure or plan.
3. Make a clear and interesting PowerPoint presentation as a basis.	3. Pack your PowerPoint with information.
4. Stand up, you will be more convincing that way.	4. Keep your hands in your pockets.
5. Have an open posture.	5. Fidget or move your hands around too much.
6. Find an original opening statement.	6. Read the whole presentation from your notes.
7. Make eye contact with the audience.	7. Stare at your notes or at one particular point in the room.
8. Provide examples to clarify abstract/theoretical information.	8. Just rattle off facts.
9. End with a catchy final sentence.	9. Rush through your story.
10. Take the time to answer questions.	10. Doubt your knowledge on your chosen subject.

English as a Global Language: What are 'Kachru's Three Circles of English'?

Braj Kachru was a Professor of Linguistics who coined the term 'World English'. 

'World English' refers to the fact that the English language has been used as a global means of communication in numerous dialects worldwide. It also refers to the movement towards an 'international standard' of the English language. 

Kachru constructed a model of the different uses of English around the world. This model is comprised of three concentric circles, which he labelled: the inner circle, the outer circle and the expanding circle. 

1) The inner circle 

The inner circle is comprised of those countries who are considered the 'traditional bases' of English, such as the U.K., U.S.A, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and anglophone Canada. English in these countries are classed as a 'first' language. Kachru labels the inner circle countries as 'norm-providing' - the norms of the English language are produced there.

2) The outer circle 

The outer circle is comprised of countries where English is not spoken natively but is still maintained as an important language for communication (e.g. as an official 'second' language or as the nation's official language for business and commerce) largely due to historical reasons. These countries include: India, Nigeria, the Phillippines, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Malaysia, Tanzania, Kenya, non-anglophone South Africa and Canada. Kachru labels these countries as 'norm-developing' - the norms prodcued by the inner circle are further developed and reproduced in the outer circle.

3) The expanding circle 

The expanding circle includes much of the rest of the world's population -  countries that do not hold historical or governmental importance towards English, but class it as a foreign language or lingua franca. Main examples of such countries include: most of Europe, China, Russia, Japan, Korea, Egypt and Indonesia. These countries are 'norm-dependent' - they fully depend on the norms originally produced by the native speakers of the inner circle. They generally do not develop or reproduce 'Englishes'.