COMPARING LEARNING THEORIES

Learning Theories

Comparison Among L. Theories	Behaviorism	Cognitivism
List of Key Theorists	B.F. Skinner Ivan Pavlov Edward Thorndike John B. Watson	Jean Piaget Robert Gagne Lev Vygotsky
Role of Learners	· Learners are basically   passive, just responding   to stimuli.	· Learners process, store & retrieve    information for later use - creating    associations and creating a    knowledge set useful for living.    The learner uses the information    processing approach to transfer    and assimilate new information.
Role of Teachers	·Instructor designs the  learning environment. ·Instructor shapes child’s   behaviour by positive/   negative reinforcement. ·Teacher presents the       information  & then   students demonstrate   that they understand the   material.    Students are assessed     primarily through tests.	· Instructor manages problem     solving & structured search   activities, especially with group      learning strategies. · Instructor provides opportunities    for students to connect new    information to schema.
Key Concepts	Behaviourism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviours and discounts mental activities. Behaviour theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour. Experiments by behaviourists identify conditioning as a universal learning process. There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioural pattern: 1.Classic conditioning   occurs  when a natural     reflex responds to  a   stimulus. The most      popular  example is   Pavlov's observation that   dogs salivate when they     eat or even see food.     Essentially, animals and   people are biologically     "wired" so that a certain   stimulus will produce a   specific response. 2.Behavioral or operant    conditioning occurs      when a response to a      stimulus is reinforced.   Basically, operant       conditioning is a simple     feedback system: If a   reward or reinforcement      follows  the response to a     stimulus, then the   response becomes more    probable in the future.    For e.g. leading    behaviourist B.F.Skinner     used reinforcement    techniques to teach-    pigeons to dance and    bowl a ball in a mini    alley.	Cognitivism focuses on the “brain”. How humans process and store information was very important in the process of learning. · Schema - An internal knowledge    structure.   New information is compared to    existing cognitive structures   called "schema".   Schema may be combined,     extended or altered to      accommodate new information. · Three-Stage Information    Processing Model – input first   enters a sensory register, then is   processed in short-term memory,    and then is transferred to long-term   memory for storage and retrieval. o Sensory Register - receives input     from senses which lasts from less     than a second to four seconds and      then disappears through decay or    replacement. Much of the    information never reaches short    term memory but all information is    monitored at some level and acted       upon if necessary. o Short-Term Memory (STM) -    sensory input that is important or    interesting is transferred from the    sensory register to the STM.      Memory can be retained here for    up to 20 seconds or more if     rehearsed repeatedly. Short-term    memory can hold up to 7 plus or    minus 2 items.STM capacity can    be increased if material is       chunked into meaningful parts. o Long-Term Memory & Storage      (LTM) - stores information from     STM for long term use. Long-term    memory has unlimited capacity.    Some materials are "forced" into       LTM by rote memorization    and over learning.    Deeper levels of processing such       as generating linkages between     old and new information are much    better for successful retention of      material. · Meaningful Effects - Meaningful    information is easier to learn and   remember. If a learner links   relatively meaningless information   with prior schema it will be easier   to retain. · Serial Position Effects - It is     easier to remember items from   the beginning or end of a list rather     than those in the middle of the list, unless that item is distinctly different · Practice Effects - Practicing or    Rehearsing improves retention   especially when it is distributed   practice. By distributing practices    the learner associates the material    with many different contexts rather   than the one context afforded by    mass practice. · Transfer Effects –The effects of    prior learning on learning new     tasks or material. · Interference Effects - Occurs when    prior learning interferes with the    learning of new material. · Organization Effects - When a   learner categorizes input such   as a grocery list, it is easier to    remember. · Levels of Processing Effects -     Words may be processed at a low-    level sensory analysis of their   physical characteristics to high-    level semantic analysis of their   meaning. The more deeply a word      is process the easier it will be to   remember. · State Dependent Effects - If    learning takes place within a   certain context it will be easier to    remember within that context   rather than in a new context.
How Does Learning Take Place	Skinner · Known for operant   conditioning · A stimulus is provided · A response is generated. · Consequence to the       response is present. ·Type of consequence is   present. · Reinforcement is    provided which could be   positive or negative. Pavlov · Known for classical   conditioning. · A spontaneous reaction   that occurs automatically   to a particular stimulus. · To alter the “natural”   relationship between a      stimulus & a reaction   was viewed as a major   breakthrough in the study   of behaviour. Thorndike · Thorndike concluded that   animals learn, solely, by   trial & error, or reward   and punishment. - All learning involves the   formation of connections,     and connections  are   strengthened according   to the law of effect.  Intelligence is the ability to  form connections and  humans are the most  evolved animal because  they form more   connections  than  any  other being. - The "law of effect"   stated that when a   connection between a   stimulus and response is   positively rewarded it will be strengthened and when it is negatively rewarded it will be weakened. Thorndike later revised this "law" when he found that negative reward, (punishment) did not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance. - The "law of exercise"   held that the more an   SR(stimulus response)   bond is practiced the   stronger it will become. As with the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be updated when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance. Looking more specifically at academic learning, i.e. the content of a lesson, rather than managing the behaviour within it,  -Thorndike's "Theory of    Transfer of Identical  Elements" represents the  central behaviourist  stance, that the amount of  learning that can be  generalized between a  familiar situation and an  unfamiliar one is  determined by the number  of elements that the two  situations have in  common. He concluded  that education does not  generalize easily and that  if it is to be preparation for  life beyond school, then it  should be as life-like as  possible. Also Thorndike maintained that a skill should be introduced when a learner is conscious of their need for it as a means of satisfying some useful purpose. -Regarding material,    Skinner specified that to    teach well, a teacher must    decide exactly what it is    they want to teach - only  then can they present the  right material, know what  responses to look for and    hence when to give  reinforcement that usefully  shapes behaviour. He suggested 3 principles which teachers should use to promote effective learning: 1) present the information     to be learned in small behaviourally defined steps. 2) give rapid feedback to pupils regarding the accuracy of their      learning (learning being indicated by overt pupil responses) 3) allow pupils to learn at     their own pace. Building on these       development - problem        solving skills of tasks          can be placed into 3    categories: Those performed independently by the learner. Those that cannot be performed even with help. Those that fall between the 2 extremes, the tasks that can be performed with help from others. Seymour Papert · Mathetics—the art of learning. · Guidelines for the art of   learning. 1st  principle-Give yourself                        time. 2nd principle-discussion. 3rd principle-look for                     connections. · The building of   knowledge is the goal.     Decrease amount   of teaching and increase   student projects.    proposed an alternative   teaching  technique    called programmed     learning/ instruction &   also a teaching machine   that could present   programmed material. Watson Watson believed that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love & rage. All other behaviour is established through stimulus-response associations through conditioning.	Piaget · Human intelligence & biological     organisms function in similar ways.   They are both organized systems     that constantly interact with the   environment. · Knowledge is the interaction      between the individual and the   environment. · Cognitive development is the    growth of logical thinking from    infancy to adulthood. Vygotsky Vygotsky’s components of Cognitive Development: · Mastering symbols of the culture    and developing the cultural   forms of reasoning. · Complex functions begin as social    interactions between individuals;   gradually acquire meaning and   are internalized by the learner. · Speech and other symbols are first   mastered as a form of    communication and eventually      structure & manage a child’s     thinking. · Zone of Proximal Development    focuses on interactive problem   solving.
Relevance to Educational Technology/ Implications	· Identify possible      reinforcers by observing    behaviours of learners · Select Stimulus · Identify and describe the   terminal objective –   observable behaviour · By a process of shaping      & smaller steps achieve     goals · Mastery learning is an eg   ff behavioural approach · Behaviourism still   continues to play a large   role in motivation,   classroom management,     and  special education   needs. Implications of Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory in Teaching & Learning  1. Newly learned skill or technique ought to be given continuous reinforcement. 2. Use of positive    reinforcement which    glues present result is    more effective. 3. Extinction process by means of Operant Conditioning & can be used to modify pupils undesirable behaviour e.g. to withdraw the reinforcement which has been given before. 4. Guide pupils to master the concept of discrimination through the operant conditioning process so that they will acquire the knowledge & skill accurately. 5.Negatively reinforcement    is also suitable & can be    used to achieve and    desired behaviour.(If    the pupils did not follow    the rules or discipline in    the classroom).	Cognitivists believe learners develop learning through receiving, storing and retrieving information. With this idea, it is important for instructional designers to thoroughly analyse & consider the appropriate tasks needed in order for learners to effectively & efficiently process the information received. Likewise, designers must consider the relevant learner characteristics that will promote or impede the cognitive processing of information. · Do task analysis & learner analysis · Create tests · Create learning materials    according to any one of the   Instructional Design Models Implications of cognitive theories: - Cognitive processes influence   learning. - As children grow, they become   capable of increasingly more   sophisticated thought. - People organize the things they   learn. - New information is most easily   acquired when people can   associate it with things they have   already learned. - People control their own learning.
Possible Learning Activities	· Instructional cues to elicit      correct response · Practice paired with   target stimuli · Reinforcement for correct     responses · Building fluency (get   responses closer and   closer to correct   response) · Multiple opportunities/     trials (Drill  and practice) · Discrimination (recalling    facts) · Generalization (defining   and illustrating concepts) · Associations (applying   explanations) · Chaining (automatically   performing a specified   procedure)	· Explanations · Demonstrations · Illustrative examples · Gestalt Theory · Matched non-examples · Corrective feedback · Outlining · Mnemonics · Dual-Coding Theory · Chunking Information · Repetition · Concept Mapping · Advanced Organizers · Analogies · Summaries · Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation · Interactivity · Synthesis · Schema Theory · Metaphor · Generative Learning · Organizational strategies · Elaboration Theory

             Learning Theories

Comparison Among L. Theories	Constructivism	Humanistic
List of Key Theorists	John Dewey Jerome Bruner Merrill Lev Vygotsky Seymour Papert	Abraham Harold Maslow Carl Rogers James F.T Bugental
Role of Learners	· Learning is an active   process in which learners     construct new ideas or     concepts based upon   their current/past   knowledge, social   interactions & motivation    affect the construction.	- Learning is an active       process/pupils participate    actively in Learning activities - Pupils determine the learning     materials, method of learning,    quantity of learning & values - making a right or wrong   choice is entirely the pupils’      responsibility
Role of Teachers	· Educators focus on making   connections between facts   & fostering new   understanding in students.       Instructors tailor their   teaching strategies to      student responses and     encourage students to     analyse, interpret & predict     information.   Teachers also rely heavily     on open-ended questions      and promote extensive     dialogue among students. · Constructivism calls for the   elimination of a   standardized curriculum.     Instead, it promotes      using curricula customized   to the students' prior   knowledge. Also, it   emphasizes hands-on    problem solving.	- facilitator and organiser to   motivate pupils to use their   own learning strategy to   achieve self-perfection - be aware of pupils’ need   help pupils to acquire   knowledge - guide pupils so that their   potentials can be develop to   the optimal level - create non-threatening   environment / condition - teaching and learning   strategy should be designed      to follow individual needs and   emotional development - teaching and learning     activities should be related to   actual life experience to instil   values of living skills among   pupils - school provide opportunity   for  pupils to discover     themselves and master   reflective thinking skill to    access their own self and to       acquire the ability for self    discipline
Key Concepts	Constructivism focuses on how  learners construct their own meaning. They ask questions, develop answers and interact and interpret the environment. By doing these things, they incorporate new knowledge with prior knowledge to create new meanings. 1. Multiple perspectives and Representations of   concepts & content r presented& encouraged. 2. Goals and objectives are derived by the student or in negotiation with the teacher or system. 3. Teachers serve in the role     of guides, monitors,   coaches, tutors& facilitators. 4. Activities, opportunities, tools &environments are provided to encourage metacognition, self- analysis - regulation, - reflection & - awareness. 5. The student plays a central role in mediating & controlling learning. 6. Learning situations,       environments, skills,         content & tasks are    relevant, realistic,      authentic &represent the        natural complexities of the       'real world'. 7. Primary sources of data    are used  in order to       ensure authenticity & real-    world complexity. 8. Knowledge construction &     not  reproduction is     emphasized. 9. This construction takes place in individual contexts and through   social negotiation,      collaboration & experience. 10.The learner's previous      knowledge constructions,        beliefs and attitudes      are considered in the      knowledge construction      process. 11. Problem-solving, higher      order thinking skills and       deep understanding are    emphasized. 12. Errors provide the   opportunity for insight into   students' previous     knowledge constructions. 13. Exploration is a favoured       approach in order to       encourage students to       seek knowledge        independently and to      manage the pursuit of      their goals. 14. Learners are provided       with the opportunity for       apprenticeship         learning in which there is       an increasing complexity       of tasks, skills and       knowledge acquisition. 15. Knowledge complexity is       reflected in an emphasis       on conceptual         interrelatedness &       interdisciplinary learning. 16.Collaborative and cooperative learning are   favoured in order to  expose the learner to alternative viewpoints. 17. Scaffolding is facilitated       to help students perform       just beyond the limits of       their ability. 18. Assessment is authentic       and interwoven with       teaching. Implication of constructivism -  in teaching & learning the    role of the teacher is an     advisor, facilitator,planner,    motivator and assistant -  the most suitable method    is to use cooperative and    collaborative model -  pupil’s knowledge &    awareness are important    factors that influence the    process of cognitive    development -  assist pupils to use their    acquired knowledge to    relate & apply to the    learning of new knowledge -  foster intrinsic motivation    for pupils to learn on their    own initiative -  traditional evaluation is    not suitable -  the format and instrument    of evaluation used for    knowledge acquisition    must be constructed by    teacher & pupils together -  pupils are encourage to    use critical & creative    thinking skills to solve    problems -  metacognitive skills are    emphasised -  reflective thinking to    control, assess & make    reflection on the result &    achievement	Humanism focuses onrecognising human capabilities in areas such as creativity, personal growth and choice. 1. Main concept: Human     nature basically good &noble.  2. Theory of hierarchical       needs is basically the      motivation theory in      humanistic psychology. 3.Main core: Theory of Self-    Actualization:  4. Education development  should be “pupil-centred”. -  Teaching emphasized on individual potentials rather than reading materials. -  Meaningful & useful learning    experiences. Fostering of           true, sincere &mutual trust    between teacher & pupil.
How Does Learning Take Place	Constructivism promotes a more open-ended learning experience where the methods and results of learning are not easily measured and may not be the same for each learner. Piaget · All knowledge is a human    construction. · The learner starts with a    blank slate. · Not logical thinking. 1. Learning is an internal   process that occurs in the mind of the individual. 2. Cognitive conflict is essential to the learning process. Dewey · Education’s connection   with society, outside world,   life. · What we learn should have    meaningful relevancy. · Instruction should centre   around the child’s   experience Bruner · Learner constructs new     ideas or concepts based    upon their current /    past knowledge · Learning by discovery     through developmental     stages. · Benchmarks reveal each    stage of child’s     development, interaction &    discovery is learning. · Education relevant to      student’s need, stages in    cognitive development Merrill · knowledge is constructed   from experience · learning is a personal   interpretation of the world · learning is an active   process in which meaning   is developed on the basis   of experience · conceptual growth comes   from the negotiation of   meaning, the sharing of   multiple perspectives & the   changing of our internal   representations through   collaborative learning · learning should be situated   in realistic settings; testing   should be integrated with   the task and not a separate     activity Vygotsky's theory presents three principles: 1. Making meaning –    the community places a    central role, and the        people around the student    greatly affect the way he    or she sees the world. 2. Tools for cognitive      development - the type    and quality of these tools     (culture, language,    important adults to the    student) determine the    pattern and rate of    development. 3. The Zone of Proximal     Development     – problem solving skills of      tasks can be placed into     three categories:   i. Those performed      independently by  the      learner.  ii. Those that cannot be       performed even with help. iii. Those that fall between the two extremes, the   tasks that can be performed with help from others. Seymour Papert · Mathetics—the art of                       learning. · Guidelines for the art of    learning.   1st principle-Give yourself                      time.   2nd principle-discussion.   3rd principle-look for                      connections. · The building of knowledge    is the goal. Decrease   amount of teaching and   increase student projects.	Bugental (1976) - Human experiences    psychology  are different from    animals - Main team of research follow   closely to the aim of    meaningful human living. - study of human behaviours   cover subjective internal    process & explicit behaviours. - Humanistic psychology is   base on psychology theory    & application of psychology. - Basic consideration is   emphasize on individual   differences. - Research based on the idea   of contribution which will   change human living to be   come meaningful, peaceful &   well being. Carl Rogers - Every individual experience is   a logical phenomenon. - Form his own unique concept   through self-belief which are   different from others. - Individual explicit behaviour is     in accordance with his own   self concept & belief. - Experience & knowledge   acquire from the environment     will enable the individual to     form self concept (positive &   negative). - Behaviour which has been   displayed reflects individual   self concept & belief. Principles Of Rogers’s Approach In Education. - Emphasize on learner   centred education. -  Emphasize on freedom to         learner. - Rational & approach are :   Learning is considered as a      curiosity  to know. - Can only occur if the learning   materials are meaningful as   well as with the objective. - Effectiveness will only occur   when pupils take their own   initiative & fully involve   themselves in the learning   activities. Rogers’s view on education - pupils participate actively in   learning activities. - Pupils take their own initiative   and  involve themselves fully   in learning activities then   learning result attained would   be optimal. - The most effective learning is   learn the way how to learn   (pupils acquire knowledge by   means of own learning & not   much from teacher. - Learning materials ,method of   learning , quantity of learning   & values should be determine   by the pupils themselves. - Teacher has to respect pupils   opinion & choice. - Games with creative   elements & art education   should contain high ethical &   aesthetical values. - Activates the feeling &   emotional of pupils , thus   enable them to develop  their   potentials completely. - School should provide  opportunity 4 pupils 2 discover  themselves $ master reflective  thinking skills 2 asses their  ownself as well as 2 acquire  the ability 4 self-disipline.
Relevance to Educational Technology/ Implications	As opposed to an objective approach to learning, constructivism is more open-ended in expectation where the results and even the methods of learning themselves are not easily measured and may not be consistent with each learner. · Case-Based Learning · Authentic situations · Multiple cases to build       cognitive flexibility · Social interactions,   collaborations · Assessment of activity · Shift teachers role to   scaffolding, modelling,   coaching of learners. · Experiences are critical · Shift from behavioural   objectives to activity goals · Advance organizers -  in teaching & learning the    role of the teacher is an     advisor,facilitator, planner,    motivator and assistant -  the most suitable method    is to use cooperative and    collaborative model -  pupil’s knowledge &    awareness are important    factors that influence the    process of cognitive    development -  assist pupils to use their    acquired knowledge to    relate & apply to the    learning of new knowledge -  foster intrinsic motivation    for pupils to learn on their    own initiative -  traditional evaluation is    not suitable -  the format and instrument    of evaluation used for    knowledge acquisition    must be constructed by    teacher & pupils together -  pupils are encourage to    use critical & creative    thinking  skills to solve    problems -  metacognitive skills are    emphasised - reflective thinking to     control, assess & make   reflection on the result &    achievement	- stresses the importance of   developing individual   potentials - strategy & method for   teaching & learning should     be orientated towards pupil-   centred - individual teaching method - inquiry-discovery - practical approach - enrichment and remedial   activities
Possible Learning Activities	· Modelling · Collaborative Learning · Coaching · Scaffolding · Problem-Based Learning · Authentic Learning · Anchored Instruction · Cognitive Flexibility    Hypertexts · Object-based Learning	- Individual learning - group activity with teacher as     facilitator. - inquiry-discovery (science-   observing the life cycle of a   frog) - discussion - brainstorming - problem solving - simulation

Behavioural psychologists Learners need grades, gold stars, and other incentives as motivation to learn and to accomplish school requirements. Students should be graded according to uniform standards of achievement which the teacher sets for the class. Curriculum should be organized along subject matter lines that are carefully sequenced.

Cognitive psychologists  Teachers need to determine what students are thinking about while solving math problems. The teacher should help students to monitor and control their own learning behaviour.

Humanistic psychologists  Learners can be trusted to find their own goals and should have some options or choices in what they learn at school.  Students should set their own individual standards and should evaluate their own work. The school experience should help students to develop positive relations with their peers .